1462  Issued  Au*u 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  LECTURE  6  (Rev.). 

A.  C.  TRUE,  Director. 


SYLLABUS  OF  ILLUSTRATED  LECTURE 


ON 


SILAGE  AND  SILO  CONSTRUCTION 
FOR  THE  SODTH. 


BY 


ANDREW  M.  SOULE,  B.  S.  A.,  Sc.  D., 

Director  of  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Blachsburg,  Virginia. 


aJBWfc 

Wmw* 


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FREE  PUBLIC  LIBRARY 
JACKSONVILLE,  FLORIDA 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1912. 


14G2  ItoOftd  A.U 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OE  AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— FARMERS'  INSTITUTE  LECTURE  5  (Rev.). 

A.  C.  TRUE,   Director. 


SYLLABUS  OF  ILLUSTRATED  LECTURE 

ON 

SILAGE  AND  SILO  CONSTRUCTION 
FOR  THE  SOUTH. 


BY 


ANDREW  M.  SOULE,  B.  S.  A.,  Sc.  D., 

Director  of  Virginia  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Blachsburg,  Virginia. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1912. 


r 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


Tliis  syllabus  of  a  lecture  upon  Silage  and  Silo  Construction  for  the 
South,  by  Andrew  M.  Soule,  B.  S.  A.,  Sc.  D.  director  of  the  Virginia  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  Blacksburg,  Va.,  is  accompanied  by  48 
lantern  slides  illustrating  the  topic.  The  syllabus  and  views  have 
been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  farmers'  institute  lecturers 
ID  their  presentation  of  this  subject  before  institute  audiences. 

The  numbers  in  the  margins  of  the  pages  of  the  syllabus  refer  to 
similar  numbers  on  the  lantern  slides  and  to  their  legends  as  given  in 
the  Appendix.  Those  in  the  body  of  the  text  refer  to  corresponding 
numbers  in  the  list  of  authorities  and  references. 

In  order  that  those  using  the  lecture  may  have  opportunity  to  fully 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  subject,  references  to  its  recent  litera- 
ture are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

John  Hamilton, 
Farmers1  Institute  Specialist. 

Recommended  for  publication. 
A.  C.  True,  Director. 

Publication  authorized. 

James  Wilson,  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  27,  1912. 

(2) 


SILAGE  AND  SILO  CONSTRUCTION. 


By  Andrew  M.  Soule,  B.  S.  A.,  Sc.  D. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  first  silos  were  simply  pits  in  the  ground  in  which  the  fodder 
was  thrown  uncut.  The  fodder  was  well  tramped  as  placed  in  the 
pits,  and  when  the  pits  were  full  the  whole  was  covered  with  boards 
and  a  layer  of  earth.  This  method  of  preserving  green  food  was  prac- 
ticed quite  commonly  throughout  northern  Europe  at  an  early  date. 

To  August e  Goffart  belongs  the  honor  of  publishing  in  1879  one  of 
the  first  books  on  the  subject  of  silos  and  crops  for  the  same.  Though 
not  the  originator  of  the  silo,  his  twenty-five  years  of  study  and 
experiment  firmly  established  its  value.  The  attention  of  American 
farmers  was  called  to  this  subject  through  the  translation  of  Goff art's 
work  in  1879,  and  also  through  the  publication  of  a  book  by  J.  M. 
Bailey  in  1880. 

FIRST  SILOS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Silos  first  began  to  be  constructed  in  the  United  States  about  thirty 
years  ago.  The  wonderful  progress  the  silo  has  made  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  the  number  now  in  existence  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  three  hundred  thousand  to  half  a  million.  It  has  been  used  with 
more  or  less  success  in  practically  every  State  in  the  Union,  and  is  a 
recognized  institution  in  sections  where  live-stock  interests  predom- 
inate. 

While  the  process  of  ensiling  is  thus  very  old,  a  correct  knowledge 
of  silo  construction  and  the  production  and  preservation  of  crops  in 
an  economical  manner  is  a  matter  of  comparatively  recent  investiga- 
tion and  development.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  their  construction  and 
the  utilization  of  silage  as  a  food  for  live  stock  in  the  South  is  still  in 
its  infancy,  for,  comparatively  speaking,  only  a  very  few  farmers  are 
using  silage  to-day.  It  is,  however,  clearly  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  economical  and  satisfactory  feed  stuffs  obtainable,  and  the 
comparative  cheapness  with  which  silos  can  be  constructed  and  the 
necessity  of  producing  every  tiling  raised  on  the  farm  in  the  most 
economical  manner  insure  its  wide  popularity  in  the  years  to  come. 

(3) 


EARLY  FORMS  OF  SILOS. 

The  progress  made  in  .silo  construction  in  the  past  few  years  is  little 
short  of  marvelous,  Goffart's  first  silo  was  a  shallow  rectangular 
structure  1G.4  by  39.4  feet  by  16.4  feet  in  height.  All  the  early  silos 
constructed  ill  this  country  were  patterned  alter  his.  At  that  time  it 
Was  thought  necessary  to  Weight  the  silage  very  heavily  in  order  to 
preserve  it,  and  as  no  convenient  means  of  hoisting  were  available 
the  structures  Were  all  shallow.  A  little  later  square  or  rectangular 
silos  constructed  in  the  bays  of  barns  came  into  favor.  Very  heavy 
timbers  were  used,  but  in  spite  of  this  fact  the  walls  would  often 
spring  and  allow  air  to  get  in.  Thus  a  part  of  the  silage  was  lost 
from  decay.  As  no  ventilation  was  provided  for,  these  silos  were  of 
necessity  short  lived.  These  disastrous  experiences  taught  many 
useful  lessons,  resulting  finally  in  the  introduction  of  cylindrical 
silos.  Farmers  had  also  learned  that  a  deep  silo  was  a  great  advan- 
tage, and  that  the  weighting  so  laboriously  pursued  in  early  years 
was  unnecessary. 

The  round  silo  has  come  into  general  use  for  obvious  reasons,  which 
are  stated  in  detail  farther  on.  It  has  solved  many  of  the  difficulties 
which  proved  stumbling  blocks  to  the  pioneer  silo  builders.  It  is  now 
a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  build  a  satisfactory  round  silo  at 
moderate  cost. 

THE  COST  OF  SILAGE. 

As  to  the  cost  of  silage,  a  fair  average  would  be  about  S1.5C  per 
ton,  though  some  say  SI  and  others  $2.  The  cost  depends  a  good  deal 
on  the  management.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  can  certainly  be 
made  from  corn  or  corn  and  sorghum  at  a  cost  of  $1  per  ton.  As  to 
the  yields  that  can  be  anticipated,  with  corn  they  are  placed  at  from 
5  to  12  tons  per  acre,  with  sorghum  from  12  to  18  tons.  These  yields 
approximate  those  obtained  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station.460 
In  fact,  it  is  remarkable  how  closely  the  yields  of  these  crops  and  the 
cost  of  producing  them,  together  with  the  value  of  silage  for  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  animals,  as  advocated  by  this  station,  coincide  with 
the  experience  of  farmers  at  widely  separated  points  in  the  State. 

THE  VALUE  OF  SILAGE. 

As  to  the  value  of  silage,  most  farmers  who  have  had  experience 
with  it  regard  it  as  indispensable.  Mr.  P.  F.  Kei'auver,  of  Madison- 
ville,  Tenn.,  says  that  an  acre  of  corn  in  silage  is  equal  to  5  acres  of 
blue-grass  pasture.  Mr.  Frank  Duff,  of  Rogersville,  Tenn.,  says  that 
it  increases  the  value  of  the  corn  crop  by  33  per  cent,  as  compared 
with  feeding  the  corn  and  stover  separately.  Mr.  S.  E.  Young,  of 
Sweetwater,  Tenn.,  who  has  a  100-ton  silo,  says  that  it  is  worth  $50 
a  year  to  him,  and  Mr.  S.  P.  White,  of  Pulaski,  who  has  a  350-ton 

a  The  small  figures  refer  to  the  list  of  references  at  the  end  of  this  paper. 


silo,  that  it  is  worth  $200  a  year  to  him.  Mr.  George  S.  Timmons, 
of  Jefferson  City,  Term.,  says  that  25  acres  of  silage  is  equal  to  75 
acres  of  good  grass.  Mr.  W.  G.  Lenoir,  of  Philadelphia,  says  that  a 
silo  doubles  the  feeding  value  of  the  crop  grown  on  the  land.  Col. 
A.  D.  Reynolds,  of  Bristol,  Tenn.,  says  that  silage  increases  the  car- 
rying capacity  of  the  land  by  one-third.  These  statements,  coming 
from  men  in  various  sections  of  Tennessee,  should  convince  every  rea- 
sonable man  of  the  great  importance  of  the  silo  to  him.  Do  not  hesi- 
tate to  build  a  silo.  It  has  stood  the  test  of  time  and  won  on  its  merits. 
The  silo  is  simply  indispensable  to  the  average  southern  farmer. 

As  to  the  feeding  value  of  silage  for  beef  cattle,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  say  that  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  four  head  have  been 
maintained  for  one  hundred  and  fifty  days  on  the  silage  produced  on 
0.91  acre  of  land.  To  feed  four  animals  on  corn  stover  for  the  same 
time  required  the  crop  raised  on  2  acres  of  land,  to  feed  them  on  sor- 
ghum fodder  the  crop  grown  on  0.93  acre  of  land,  and  on  Kafir  corn 
the  crop  produced  on  2.5  acres.  The  cattle  receiving  silage  gained 
887  pounds,  or  1.40  pounds  each  per  day;  the  cattle  receiving  stover 
gained  582  pounds,  or  0.97  pound  each  per  day;  the  cattle  receiving 
sorghum  fodder  692  pounds,  or  1.15  pounds  each  per  day;  and  the 
cattle  receiving  Kafir  corn  624  pounds,  or  1.04  pounds  each  per  day. 
These  cattle  all  received  the  same  meal  ration  and  the  same  care  and 
treatment. 

For  the  cheap  maintenance  of  dairy  cows  the  silo  is  unsurpassed. 
By  the  use  of  silage  in  conjunction  with  alfalfa  or  cowpea  hay  and 
cottonseed  meal  it  has  been  possible  to  produce  a  pound  of  butter 
and  a  gallon  of  milk  at  a  feed  cost  of  10.4  and  5.7  cents  respectively. 
Thus  the  silo  insures  the  cheap  production  of  milk  and  butter  all 
over  the  South.  It  makes  it  safe  to  feed  cottonseed  meal  both  to 
beef  and  dairy  cattle  for  long  periods,  and  it  also  enables  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  rich  hays  produced  from  a  great  variety  of  leguminous 
crops  to  replace  bran  and  other  expensive  concentrates  in  rations 
for  beef  and  dairy  cattle. 

To  show  the  relative  yield  of  silage  as  compared  with  shocked  sor-  • 
ghum  and  corn  stover  the  following  table  has  been  prepared: 

Silage  versus  dry  feed. 


Crop. 


Aercapo. 


Soil  prepa- 
ration and 
cultivation 
per  acre. 


Harvesting 
per  acre. 


Sorghum 

Corn 

Corn  and  sorghum 

Soy  beans 

Shocked  sorghum . 
Corn  stover 


15.03 
10. 6(5 
Hi.40 
2.85 
2.89 
21.80 


$10.  30 
9.11 
11.79 
12.40 
9.82 
i  3. 19 


Total  cost 
per  acre. 


S9.18 
5.61 
7.35 
7.46 
9.12 

»3.0S 


$19.48 
14.72 
19.14 
19.86 
IS.  94 
i  R  72 


Yield. 


Ton-':. 

14.2 
7.4 

10.4 
7.5 
7.1 
1.81 


Cost  per 
ton. 


$1.41 
2.00 
1.86 
2.83 
2.64 
3.46 


1  One-third  cost  charged  to  stover. 


This  table  gives  the  average  results  of  growing  these  crops  for  sev- 
eral years.  It  BHOWB  that  silage  can  be  made  for  considerably  less 
from  BOrghum  than  from  corn,  and  that  a  much  larger  yield  may  be 
anticipated.     Soy  beans  by  themselves  for  Bilage  did  not  prove  very 

satisfactory,  as  cattle  do  not  eat  it  with  relish.  Coin  and  sorghum 
make  a  greater  yield  at  Less  cost  than  coin  alone,  and  the  combination 
improves  the  feeding  value  and  the  keeping  quality  of  the  silage. 

There  was  not  so  much  difference  in  the  cost  of  a  ion  of  silage  as 
compared  with  the  cost  of  a  ton  of  shocked  sorghum  and  corn  st<>\ ner 
as  would  naturally  be  expected,  but  there  was  a  decided  difference  in 
the  feeding  value  of  the  two,  as  shown  by  the  results  quoted  above. 
Considering  the  relative  yields  and  the  cost  of  the  sorghum  silage  as 
compared  with  corn  stover,  and  basing  its  feeding  value  on  the  results 
shown  above,  there  was  a  difference  of  593  pounds  of  beef  per  acre  in 
favor  of  the  sorghum  silage  as  compared  with  sorghum  fodder,  and  a 
difference  of  521  pounds  of  beef  per  acre  in  favor  of  corn  silage  as 
compared  with  corn  stover.  These  very  surprising  facts  fully  sub- 
stantiate the  claims  made  for  silage  by  practical  feeders,  and  there 
can  no  longer  be  any  reason  for  doubting  the  utility  of  the  silo  on  the 
average  farm  where  stock  raising  is  a  matter  of  any  importance. 

WHO  SHOULD  HAVE  A  SILO  ? 

Who  should  have  a  silo?  Every  farmer  who  is  interested  in  the 
feeding  and  maintenance  of  live  stock  should  have  a  silo.  Silage  is 
not  as  satisfactory  for  horses  and  mules  as  for  beef  and  dairy  cattle 
and  sheep,  but  if  fed  judiciously  and  in  conjunction  with  pea  hay  it 
will  be  found  a  great  advantage  and  will  lessen  the  cost  of  the  ration. 

Many  farmers  who  have  undertaken  stock  farming  have  given  it 
up  in  disgust  because,  they  said,  there  was  no  money  in  it.  The  diffi- 
culty frequently  has  been  that  the  cost  of  the  foods  utilized  was  out 
of  proportion  to  the  sale  price  of  the  animals.  This  was  due  to  two 
things:  (1)  The  feed  stuffs  wrere  not  well  cured  and  handled,  and  (2) 
the  cattle  were  not  " finished,"  and  hence  did  not  bring  the  highest 
market  price. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  silo  is  not  a  panacea  for  all  ills,  but  at 
the  same  time  it  would  have  smoothed  the  pathway  of  many  a  stock 
feeder  and  reduced  the  outlay  for  feed,  resulting  in  more  satisfactory 
gains,  a  better  finish  to  his  animals,  and  consequently  larger  profits. 

A  silo  may  be  built  at  any  convenient  time  from  early  spring  until 
the  first  of  August.  If  early-maturing  varieties  of  corn  are  used  the 
crop  will  be  ready  for  the  silo  by  August  15  to  September  1,  and  it 
is  well  to  have  the  structure  completed  some  weeks  before  it  is  to  be 
used,  so  it  may  become  thoroughly  seasoned.  Any  defects  can  then 
be  remedied  and  the  inside  coated  with  hot  coal  tar,  which  is  the  hot 
and  simplest  preservative  to  use. 


The  method  of  construction  followed  will  he  governed  hy  many  con- 
dil  ions,  and  so  an  endeavor  will  he  made  to  discuss  briefly  some  of  the 
types  of  silos  now  commonly  in  use  and  which  are  regarded  with  the 
greatest  favor  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  contemplate  building  at 
an  early  date.  One  reason  why  the  silo  has  not  made  greater  progress 
is  due  to  the  unfortunate  experience  of  many  who  built  silos  some 
years  ago  when  comparatively  little  was  known  about  them.  Natu- 
rally many  structural  mistakes  were  made.  As  the  silos  were  not 
properly  ventilated  they  decayed  very  rapidly.  The  style  of  con- 
struction followed  was  expensive  and  not  adapted  to  our  climatic 
conditions.  With  the  information  available  at  the  present  time 
there  is  no  reason  why  these  structural  errors  should  be  repeated,  and 
those  who  may  contemplate  building  should  not  be  deterred  from 
doing  so  through  the  belief  that  a  good  silo  is  an  expensive  luxury 
and  must  be  rebuilt  every  few  years. 

SILAGE  CROPS. 

This  subject  will  be  presented  with  the  aid  of  a  series  of  viewrs 
showing  various  crops  used  for  silage  and  the  implements  and  methods 
used  in  their  culture  and  handling. 


KINDS  AND  CULTTJRE. 

This  is  a  general  view  of  the  silage  and  forage  experiments 
on  the  grounds  of  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 

Types  of  plows  that  may  be  appropriately  used  in  working 
the  land  for  silage  crops.  Fall  plowing  is  preferable  when  the 
land  does  not  wash,  in  order  that  the  freezing  in  winter  may 
pulverize  and  break  down  the  soil.  As  corn  is  a  gross  feeding 
plant,  the  ground  should  be  broken  deeply,  and  on  clay  subsoils 
or  those  in  which  a  hardpan  tends  to  form  the  subsoiler  should 
be  used.  Subsoiling  is  best  done  in  the  fall,  as  there  is  less 
danger  of  puddling  the  land  at  this  season. 

On  the  left  of  the  photograph  is  shown  the  disk  plow.  This 
is  a  very  excellent  plow  and  can  be  used  to  advantage  on  weedy 
land  free  of  stones. 

The  plow  in  the  center  is  the  ordinary  turning  plow.  Either 
plow  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  breaking  land  intended  for 
silage  crops. 

The  other  plow  shown  is  a  subsoiler  intended  to  follow  the 
turning  plow. 

A  piece  of  ground  in  very  bad  mechanical  condition.  This 
land  was  plowed  when  too  wet  and  then  allowed  to  dry  out. 
It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  get  it  in  satisfactory  condition 
for  a  crop  until  after  a  heavy  rainfall.     In  many  sections  of  the 


View. 
1 


8 


country  tin4  land  is  poor  through  constant  cropping  and  breaks 
up  in  a  condition  similar  to  that  shown  in  the  photograph. 
This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  plowing  under  a  crop  of  red 
or  crimson  clover  or  cowpeas,  soy  beans  or  velvet  beans. 

4  Late  in  September  or  early  October  cowpeas  may  be  plowed 
under  to  provide  for  the  corn  crop  the  following  year  and 
improve  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  When  the  vines 
are  very  rank  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  run  a  disk  harrow 
over  them  before  attempting  to  plow  them  under. 

5  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  enormous  root  system 
of  corn.  This  illustration  shows  two  corn  plants  that  were 
grown  in  a  nail  keg  containing  pure  sand.  They  were  only 
six  weeks  old  when  the  keg  was  removed  and  the  earth  washed 
away  from  the  roots.  Observe  the  great  mass  of  roots,  which 
furnish  the  only  evidence  needed  to  show  the  necessity  of  the 
deep  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  land  intended  for  silage 
crops  and  the  importance  of  shallow  culture  so  as  not  to  injure 
the  roots,  which  approach  very  close  to  the  surface. 

6  A  2-horse  corn  planter  is  a  favorite  implement  for  seeding 
the  crop.  On  smaller  farms  a  1-horse  planter  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  It  is  not  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to  check  corn  intended 
for  silage.  It  is  better  to  plant  it  in  rows  3J  to  4}  feet  apart, 
depending  on  the  variety,  and  about  1  foot  apart  in  the  row. 
A  2-horse  planter  will  enable  the  farmer  to  seed  corn  and  sor- 
ghum or  corn  and  cowpeas  together  by  using  suitable  plates  in 
each  box  and  doubling  back  over  the  rows. 

7  After  the  corn  has  been  planted  and  in  the  case  of  dry 
weather  the  ground  should  be  run  over  with  a  weeder  to  pre- 
serve a  dust  mulch  and  destroy  young  weeds.  The  weeder 
may  be  used  for  the  first  three  or  four  cultivations  of  the  corn 
until  from  4  to  6  inches  high,  depending  on  the  season,  which 
will  determine  the  rate  of  growth  made  by  the  crop.  These 
remarks  apply  to  the  old  style  of  nonadjustable  weeders. 
The  adjustable  machines  can  be  used  later  with  satisfaction. 

8  A  2-horse  cultivator  is  one  of  the  best  implements  for  use  in 
corn. 

9  The  yield  obtained  from  a  field  planted  in  corn  or  sorghum 
for  silage  will  depend  considerably  on  the  stand  obtained.  A 
uniform  stand  is  a  very  important  matter;  therefore  it  is  neces- 
sary to  sow  only  good  seed.  The  illustration  shows  how  to  test 
the  seed  in  a  simple  manner.  Take  100  grains  of  corn  selected 
from  different  parts  of  several  ears  and  place  them  on  a  sheet 


View. 

of  blotting  paper.  Fold  the  blotting  paper  over  the  top,  and 
place  in  an  ordinary  cigar  box  which  has  been  lined  with  sev- 
eral moist  newspapers.  Close  the  lid  of  the  cigar  box  and 
allow  to  stand  in  the  living  room  at  a  temperature  of  60°  to 
80°  F.  for  three  or  four  days.  On  examination  the  percentage 
of  terminable  seeds  can  be  quickly  ascertained,  and  in  plant- 
ing allowance  be  made  for  the  same. 

Notice  the  relative  length  of  the  stalk  from  these  grains  of         10 
corn,  which  shows  that  some  grains  have  greater  vitality  than 
others,  emphasizing  the  importance  of  testing  not  only  the  seed 
corn  in  a  general  way,  but  the  seed  from  different  ears. 

Ears   of   corn   showing  imperfectly   formed   grains.     It   is         11 
important  that  the  grain  used  be  as  nearly  even  in  size  and 
shape  as  possible,  so  that  a  perfect  stand  may  be  obtained;  not 
too  thick  in  some  places  and  too  thin  in  others. 

Ears  of  Hickory  King  corn,  an  excellent  variety  for  use  on         12 
thin  soils  or  where  an  early  maturing  variety  is  needed. 

Cocke  Prolific  corn,  a  good  variety  for  soils  of  medium  fer-         13 
tility.    This  variety  generally  produces  two  ears  per  stalk,  the 
pairs  shown  being  typical  of  the  variety. 

Ears  of  Huffman  corn.     One  of  the  best  varieties  of  white         14 
dent  corn  grown  anywhere.     This  variety  was  improved  and 
developed  by  Mr.  E.  S.  Huffman,  of  Normandy,  Tenn.     It  is 
adapted  only  to  river  bottoms  of  very  rich  land,  but  the  growth 
of  stalk  is  very  large. 

Some  leading  varieties  of  corn  that  may  be  used  to  advantage         15 
for   silage:     Hickory   King,    Champion   White   Pearl,    Early 
Learning,  Iowa  Gold  Mine,  Iowa  Silver  Mine,  100-day  Bristol, 
and  Klondyke.     Read  from  left  to  right. 

The  size  of  the  stalk  varies  greatly  with  the  variety.  Some  16 
stalks  are  more  than  twice  as  large  as  others  and  this  is  often  a 
great  disadvantage,  as  the  ears  are  hard  to  harvest  and  so  high 
as  to  cause  the  stalks  to  break  down.  A  smaller,  leafier  stalk, 
which  can  be  obtained  through  careful  selection,  will  not 
decrease  the  yield  of  corn  obtained,  but  will  facilitate  the 
handling  and  shredding  of  the  crop  and  improve  the  quality  of 
the  feed.  Reading  from  left  to  right  the  varieties  are  as  follows : 
Iowa  Gold  Mine,  100-day  Bristol,  Improved  Learning,  Hickory 
King,  Golden  Beauty,  Virginia  Ensilage,  Cocke  Prolific,  Huff- 
man, Shaw  Improved,  and  Mexican  June. 

Tins  photograph  shows  from  one  to  four  ears  growing  on         17 
stalks  of  Cocke  Prolific  corn. 
50665°— 12 2 


10 

Vinr. 

18  The  importance  of  selecting  corn  so  as  to  secure  a  uniform 

type  for  planting  La  well  brought  out  in  the  picture,  which  shows 
the  variation  in  the  size  and  shape  of  ears  of  Cocke  Prolific,  a 
well-established  variety. 

1<)  The  distance  apart  of  planting  corn  and  sorghum  and  the 

proportion  in  Which  they  arc  mixed  have  B  decided  influence 

on  the  yield  obtained  from  an  acre  of  land.     Experiments 

Were  made  at  the  Tennessee  Station  to  determine  the  influence 

of  distance  of  planting  on  the  yield,  as  follows:  Corn  and  cow- 
peas  in  rows  'A  feet  apart,  yield  S.3  tons;  cost  of  a  ton  of  silage 
placed  in  the  silo,  $2.00. 

20  Sorghum  and  cowpeas,  rows  3)  feet,  yield  15  tons;  cost  per 

ton,  $1.21. 

21  Sorghum  and  cowpeas,  rows  2  feet  apart,  yield  19.8  tons; 
cost  per  ton,  $1.15. 

22  Corn,  sorghum,  and  cowpeas,  rows  2  feet  apart,  yield  12.5 
tons;  cost  per  ton,  $2.09.  The  mixture  consisted  of  51  per 
cent  of  corn,  33.9  per  cent  of  sorghum,  and  15.1  per  cent  of  cow- 
peas. This  was  the  largest  percentage  of  peas  ever  obtained 
where  corn  and  peas,  sorghum  and  peas,  or  corn,  sorghum,  and 
peas  were  grown  together.  In  most  instances  there  was  not 
over  5  per  cent  of  peas  in  the  mixture,  an  amount  so  small  as 
to  have  no  appreciable  effect  on  the  feeding  value  of  silage. 
Corn  and  sorghum  produced  silage  of  superior  quality,  the 
two  blending  splendidly,  and  if  suitable  varieties  are  chosen 
the}'  will  mature  at  about  the  same  time.  Red  Head  sorghum 
and  Virginia  ensilage  corn  can  often  be  grown  together  to 
advantage.  In  order  to  obtain  a  mixture  in  about  the  right 
proportion  sow  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  corn  with  6  to  8  pounds 
of  sorghum.  The  crop  may  be  put  down  in  the  same  drill  row 
by  filling  one  hopper  with  corn  and  one  with  sorghum,  dou- 
bling back  over  the  rows.  Our  experience  has  not  indicated 
that  there  was  much  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  silage 
made  from  these  several  crops  and  crop  combinations,  and  the 
attempt  to  increase  the  protein  content  of  the  silage  through 
the  incorporation  of  cowpeas  can  not  be  regarded  as  a  success 
in  the  light  of  these  facts. 

2»5  Cutting  sorghum  for  silage  on  the  grounds  of  the  Tennessee 

Experiment  Station.  The  land  is  a  red  cla}r  upland  and  the 
yield  obtained  was  14  tons  per  acre1,  at  a  cost  of  $1.59  per  ton. 

24  The  advisability  of  growing  some  leguminous  crop  to  mix 

with  corn  or  sorghum  for  silage  so  as  to  balance  up  the  food 
has  often  been  suggested.  One  of  the  greatest  difficult ies 
encountered  has  been  to  find  a  machine  that  would  cut  the 


11 


View. 


crop  satisf actorily  and  leave  it  in  condition  to  handle  with  ease 
and  expedition.  The  photograph  shows  the  Mammoth  Yellow 
soy  beans  cut  and  bound  in  sheaves  with  the  corn  harvester. 
An  ordinary  binder  will  do  as  well.  This  crop  made  a  yield  of 
9.68  tons  per  acre,  but  it  cost  $2.20  per  ton,  and  did  not  make  a 
very  satisfactory  quality  of  silage. 

There  is  nothing  better  than  an  ordinary  truck  wagon  for  the         25 
handling  of  silage  crops.     It  is  low  to  the  ground,  so  that  the 
heavy  green  feed  can  be  loaded  with  comparative  ease,  and  a 
vers'  large  load  can  be  drawn  if  broad  tires  are  used. 

A  field  of  cowpeas.  As  already  mentioned,  the  percentage  of  26 
peas  obtained  when  sown  with  corn  and  sorghum  is  so  small  as 
to  have  practically  no  influence  on  the  composition  of  the  crop. 
Judging  from  the  experience  of  the  Tennessee  Station,  it  would 
be  better  to  sow  the  cowpeas  by  themselves  and  cure  as  hay 
and  feed,  in  conjunction  with  the  corn  or  sorghum  silage.  If 
an  attempt  is  made  to  run  them  in  the  silo  with  corn  and  sor- 
ghum, they  should  be  planted  in  drills  2 \  to  3  feet  apart,  cut 
with  the  mower,  and  raked  up  into  windrows. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  climbing  ability  of  various  27 
varieties  of  cowpeas,  as  shown  by  the  illustration.  Reading 
from  left  to  right,  the  varieties  of  peas  are  as  follows:  Whip- 
poorwill,  Clay,  Taylor,  Wonderful,  Black,  and  Lady.  The 
Lady  and  Whippoorwill  are  the  two  best  climbers  found  so 
far.  The  photograph  shows  typical  specimens  selected  from 
field  areas. 

Velvet  beans  climbing  on  corn.     The  velvet  bean  makes  a        28 
fine  showing  on  corn,  but  it  is  so  watery  that  when  cut  it 
withers  away  to  practically  nothing. 

FEEDING  VALUE  OF  SILAGE  FROM  DIFFERENT  CROPS. 

The  next  three  slides  (29,  30,  and  31 )  show  the  results  of  sub-  29 
stituting  alfalfa  hay  for  wheat  bran  and  cottonseed  meal  in  a 
ration  for  dairy  cows.  The  results  of  a  previous  test,  where 
cowpea  hay  was  used  in  place  of  alfalfa,  were  almost  identical. 
The  fact  that  these  substitutes  were  made  was  largely  due,  in 
the  writer's  opinion,  to  the  use  of  silage,  which  is  such  an  excel- 
lent companion  food  for  dry  hay  when  fed  in  a  finely  chopped 
condition.  The  fact  that  alfalfa  or  pea  hay,  which  the  farmer 
can  make  at  a  cost  of  $3  to  $5  per  ton,  can  be  substituted  for 
wheat  bran,  which  costs  $20  to  $25  a  ton,  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  dairyman.     These  hays  can  be  sub-j 


Btiftuted  to  B  certain  extent  for  cottonseed  meal,  but  not  w  it h 
the  peine  Bucceee  as  fur  wheat  bran.  This  slide  shows  the 
relative  proportion  of  silage,  wheat  bran,  and  cottonseed 
meal  fed  to  group  1,  which  produced  a  pound  of  butter  for 
12.3  cents  and  a  gallon  of  milk  for  7.1  cent-. 

30  This  slide  shows  the  relative  proportion  of  silage,  alfalfa  hay, 
and  cottonseed  meal  fed  to  group  2,  which  produced  a  pound 
of  butter  for  10.4  cents  and  a  gallon  of  milk  for  5.7  cents. 
Alfalfa  or  pea  hay  may  he  substituted  with  satisfaction  for 
wheat  bran. 

31  This  slide  Bhows  the  relative  proportion  of  silage,  alfalfa 
hay,  and  wheat  bran  fed  to  group  3,  which  produced  a  gallon 
of  milk  for  8.2  cents  and  a  pound  of  butter  for  15.3  cents. 

32  Part  of  the  Tennessee  station  herd  of  dairy  cows.  These 
cows  have  been  maintained  for  the  last  three  years  largely  on 
silage  and  meal.  The  concentrates  used  consisted  of  bran,  corn 
meal,  and  cottonseed  meal.  In  some  instances  the  grain  was 
mixed  in  the  proportion  of  6  pounds  bran  to  4  pounds  cotton- 
seed meal;  in  others,  about  one-third  of  each  food  stulf  was 
used;  and  for  the  last  year  or  more,  one  half  corn-and-cob 
meal  and  one-half  cottonseed  meal  was  used  with  bug 
The  value  of  this  mixture  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  high 
protein  content  of  the  cottonseed  meal  offsets  to  a  great  extent 
the  fattening  and  heating  qualities  of  the  corn.  The  meal  was 
fed  according  to  the  individual  needs  of  the  cows.  The  general 
plan  followed  was  to  feed  10  pounds  for  each  thousand  pounds 
of  live  weight.  The  silage  used  was  made  from  corn,  corn  and 
sorghum,  and  corn  and  sorghum  and  cowpeas.  About  5 
pounds  of  hay  and  30  pounds  of  sorghum  were  allowed  each 
cow  in  the  winter  season,  though  silage  as  the  sole  roughne-s 
was  fed  with  success  throughout  the  year. 

For  the  year  1900  the  herd  made  an  average  of  4,083  pounds 
of  milk  and  223  pounds  of  butter.  In  1903  they  produced 
6,371  pounds  of  milk  and  363  pounds  of  butter,  a  gain  of  2,2SS 
pounds  of  milk  and  140  pounds  of  butter  per  cow  per  annum. 
The  gross  receipts  for  1900  were  82,S00;  for  the  year  1903  they 
were  84,900.  Tins  speaks  volumes  as  to  the  value  of  silage  for 
dairy  cow-. 

33  Silage  furnishes  an  admirable  roughness  for  beef  cattle, 
along  with  cottonseed  meal  and  corn-and-cob  meal.  Thirty- 
two  head  of  cattle  fed  on  the  station  farm  in  the  winters  of  1900, 
1902,  and  1903  made  an  average  gain  of  2.16  pounds  per  head 
per  day  for  the  feeding  period  of  150  days.  These  cattle  never 
received  more  than  30  pounds  of  silage,  5  pounds  of  clover  hay. 
and  between  10  and  12  pounds  of  mixed  meal  consisting  <»f 


13 


View. 


about  equal  parts  corn-and-cob  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  per 
day.  This  illustration  shows  a  group  of  Hereford  steers  before 
feeding. 

The  same  group  of  Hereford  grade  steers  after  feeding  for  34 
150  days  on  a  ration  of  30  pounds  silage,  5  pounds  clover  hay, 
and  10  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal;  average  gain  per  day, 
2.19  pounds.  The  meat  was  of  the  finest  quality  and  was  not 
unduly  fat.  Silage,  when  fed  with  from  5  to  10  pounds  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay,  and  cottonseed  meal  and  corn- 
and-cob  meal,  furnishes  an  ideal  ration  for  beef  production. 

This  is  a  photograph  of  a  Hereford  steer  fed  for  190  days  35 
on  a  ration  of  30  pounds  of  silage,  5  pounds  of  clover  hay, 
and  10  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  This  animal  gained  2.19 
pounds  per  day  for  the  entire  period,  and  dressed  out  62.8  per 
cent  of  the  live  weight.  The  meal  ration  commenced  with  4 
pounds,  and  was  gradually  increased  to  10  pounds  as  the  feed- 
ing period  advanced.  The  succulent  nature  of  the  ration 
explains  why  such  a  heavy  ration  of  cottonseed  meal  was  fed 
for  so  long  a  period  with  perfect  success. 

Photograph  of  a  cutting  and  elevating  machine.  This  36 
machine  has  both  cutting  and  shredding  knives.  It  will  handle 
eleven  or  more  tons  of  silage  per  hour  if  it  can  be  gotten  to  the 
machine.  The  blower  elevates  the  silage  and  distributes  it  uni- 
formly over  the  silo,  so  that  the  labor  of  filling  is  greatly  reduced 
thereby.  This  is  but  one  of  the  several  excellent  types  of 
machines  on  the  market. 

This  photograph  shows  the  cutting  and  shredding  knives.         37 
Our  experience  indicates  that  it  is  better  to  use  one  cutting 
knife  and  one  shredding  knife. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  SILOS. 

REQUISITES  OF  A  SILO. 

Some  of  the  requisites  of  any  silo  may  be  stated  as  follows : 
(1)  It  must  be  perfectly  air-tight  or  the  loss  resulting  will  be  very 
great;  (2)  the  walls  must  be  rigid,  and  (3)  the  inner  surface  must 
be  smooth  and  uniform,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  rapid  settling  of 
the  silage.  The  stave  silo  has  all  of  these  qualities  if  properly 
constructed,  and  it  has  the  great  advantage  of  drying  out  quickly 
as  soon  as  emptied;  hence  it  is  not  so  likely  to  decay  as  the  silo 
with  walls  composed  of  several  layers  of  lumber.  In  spite  of 
all  that  can  be  done  moisture  will  accumulate  between  the 
layers,  and  as  they  dry  out  slowly,  particularly  so  in  the  South, 
where  the  winter  climate  is  of  a  humid  nature,  they  decay 
very  rapidly.  Besides,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  loss  in 
the  average  silo,  even  of  the  best  construction,  is  10  to  12  per 


14 

cent.  In  a  properly  constructed  stave  silo  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  exceed  tins  amount,  and  as  freezing  Is  not  an 
item  to  be  considered  no  objection  can  he  urged  against  the 
stave  silo  on  thai  account.  According  to  statements  furnished 
the  writer  a  stave  silo  with  a  capacity  of  50  to  150  tons  can  be 
erected  on  a  good  many  southern  farms  at  a  cost  of  from  | 
to  s100  where  other  types  would  cost  two  or  three  times  the 
amount.  It  was  worth  far  more  to  the  farmer  to  have  the 
stave  silo  rather  than  to  do  without  one  for  the  sake  of  build- 
Kng  a  more  expensive  and  what  has  generally  been  held  to  be 
a  more  permanent  structure.  There  is  no  question  as  to  their 
permanency  if  properly  built. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  SILO. 

The  location  of  the  silo  will  depend  largely  on  the  character 
of  stock  to  be  fed.  It  is  not  always  an  advantage  to  build  the 
silo  on  the  inside  of  the  barn.  In  a  dairy  barn  it  is  better  to 
have  it  on  the  outside,  though  joined  directly  to  it.  By 
keeping  closed  the  door  leading  to  the  barn,  the  odor  of  the 
silage  can  be  kept  out  of  the  stable  and  prevented  from  getting 
into  the  milk.  It  is  as  easy  to  distribute  the  silage  by  means 
of  a  car  to  two  rows  of  cattle  when  located  just  outside  the 
barn  as  when  built  in  the  corner  of  the  bam.  In  a  beef-cattle 
barn  the  odor  would  not  count  for  anything,  and  if  a  large 
number  of  animals  are  to  be  fed  it  is  well  to  locate  the  silo  in 
the  center  of  a  shed-like  structure,  which  can  be  utilized  with 
economy  in  the  winter  feeding  of  beef  cattle.  The  great 
advantage  of  building  the  silo  outside  the  barn  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  round  silo  is  the  preferable  type  to  use.  When 
one  is  building  a  barn  it  is  a  different  problem,  as  a  round  silo 
can  often  be  located  in  the  center  to  advantage,  whereas,  after 
the  barn  is  erected,  it  could  not  be  built  except  with  an  un- 
necessary outlay  of  labor  and  expense.  Unless  the  barn  is  a 
round  one  it  is  best  to  build  the  silo  at  one  end  of  the  barn. 

FORM  OF  SILO. 

Several  kinds  of  silos  may  be  constructed.  The  round  silo 
is  in  favor  at  the  present  time,  and  owing  to  its  many  advan- 
tages should  be  given  preference  over  other  types.  The 
round  silo  is  preferable  because  there  are  no  angles  to  cut  off, 
each  hoop  acts  as  a  brace,  and  there  is  no  trouble  with  spring- 
ing walls  which  permit  the  air  to  enter  and  cause  the  silage  to 
spoil  for  several  inches  around  the  outside.  Then  the  round 
silo  docs  not  require  so  much  lumber,  and  some  types  of  it  are 
very  simple  of  construction.  The  cost  is  also  less  in  propor- 
tion to  the  capacity  than  with  the  other  types.     Less  difficulty 


15 

seems  to  be  experienced  in  the  preservation  of  silage  in  the 
round  than  in  the  square  silos,  owing  to  the  rigidity  of  the 
walls  and  the  fact  that  the  silage  can  be  packed  around  the 
walls  with  less  effort. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  round  silos  in  common  use,  which 
may  be  described  as  the  stave  or  tub  silo,  the  modified  round 
silo,  and  the  Wisconsin  round  silo,  so  called  because  the  first 
one  constructed  in  America  was  built  at  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station.  The  most  expensive  of  these  is  the  Wisconsin 
round  silo,  and  the  least  expensive  the  stave  or  tub  silo,  which 
is  constructed  very  much  after  the  method  of  an  ordinary  rail- 
road water  tank.  There  was  strong  opposition  to  the  stave 
silo  at  one  time,  based  on  the  belief  that  when  full  it  would 
swell  and  burst  the  iron  bands  supporting  it  and  that  when 
empty  it  would  shrink  and  collapse.  Some  difficulty  was 
experienced  with  the  first  silos  erected,  because  the  method 
of  construction  was  not  understood.  It  is  now  believed  that 
the  stave  silo  is  an  excellent  type  to  build,  and  it  has  many 
advantages  which  should  receive  careful  consideration. 

Model  of  a  cheap  form  of  stave  silo  with  weatherboarded  roof.  38 
This  silo  was  constructed  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  W.  T.  Roberts, 
of  Riceville,  Tenn.,  at  a  cost  of  $60.  The  capacity  is  approxi- 
mately 110  tons.  The  material  used  in  the  construction  was 
2,800  feet  of  Georgia  hard  pine,  2  by  4  by  12's,  which  cost  $28; 
excavating  the  foundation  and  sawing  and  setting  up  staves, 
$12;  iron  hoops  made  in  two  pieces  with  adjustable  lugs,  $20. 
No  nails  were  used  to  hold  the  staves  in  place,  and  the  founda- 
tion is  simply  dug  down  to  hardpan,  and  boards  used  in  the 
place  of  more  expensive  brick  or  stone.  This  is  probably  the 
cheapest  form  of  silo  that  can  be  built.  The  staves  are  joined 
together  by  sawing  notches  in  the  end  and  inserting  heavy 
pieces  of  galvanized  iron,  after  which  the  staves  are  toe-nailed 
together.  Mr.  Roberts  says  that  he  has  been  using  this  silo  for 
ten  years  with  perfect  satisfaction;  that  there  is  no  evidence  of 
decay,  and  that  if  he  were  going  to  build  one  hundred  silos  he 
would  build  them  all  like  the  model  shown  in  preference  to  the 
much  more  expensive  types. 

Another  model  of  round  silo  constructed  of  beveled  tongued-        39 
and-grooved  staves.     This  is  the  most  expensive  type  of  stave 
silo. 

FOUNDATION  OF  THE   SILO. 

After  selecting  a  suitable  site,  excavate  the  ground  to  the 
depth  of  about  2  feet  for  the  foundation.  The  foundation  may 
be  made  of  concrete,  brick,  or  stone.  If  of  stone,  a  wall  15  inches 
in  thickness  will  be  most  convenient  to  build;  if  of  brick,  1  foot 
would  be  sufficient  unless  the  silo  is  very  large  and  high,  when 


r 


Vlfir. 


16 


it  might  appropriately  be  made  15  or  18  inches.     The  founda- 
tion may  be  prevented  from  springing  by  laying  curved  pi< 
of  iron  in  ihc  wall.    The  concrete  foundation  will  often  1" 

cheap  and  more  lasting  and  satisfactory  in  every  way  than  any 

other  type  that  can  be  used.     There  is  not  bo  much  difference 

between  the  cost  of  the  several  forms  of  foundations  as  one 
would  suppose.  The  floor  may  be  cemented  or  made  of  tamped 
earth.  This  is  entirely  a  matter  of  choice  so  far  as  the  preser- 
vation of  the  silage  is  concerned.  Many  farmers  prefer  dirt  to 
cement  when  it  becomes  well  packed.  Of  course,  a  cement 
floor  will  keep  out  rats  and  can  be  constructed  cheaply  and  very 
simply  by  putting  down  a  groundwork  of  crushed  stones  to  the 
depth  of  3  to  5  inches,  over  which  a  mixture  made  of  one  part 
cement  and  three  parts  of  sand  is  poured.  After  this  hardens 
a  2-inch  coating  made  of  one  part  of  cement  and  two  parts  of 
clean,  bright  sand  should  be  laid  down. 

40  The  foundation  of  the  stave  silo  may  be  made  by  cutting  2 
by  4's  in  2-foot  lengths  at  an  angle  which  approximates  the 
radius.  Two  pieces  of  2  by  4's  should  be  spiked  together  to 
break  joints  all  the  way  around.  To  hold  the  foundation  in 
place,  iron  bolts  provided  with  taps  and  threads  are  sometimes 
set  in  the  wall,  though  later  methods  favor  bedding  in  cement, 
which  holds  it  firm.  The  foundation  should  be  flush  with  the 
inside  so  as  not  to  leave  a  shoulder  jutting  out,  which  prevents 
the  rapid  settling  of  the  silage. 

THE  SUPERSTRUCTURE. 

41  The  staves  used  in  the  construction  of  the  silo  may  be  rough, 
planed  on  the  inside  and  on  the  edges,  dressed  on  all  sides,  or 
dressed,  tongued,  grooved,  and  beveled,  as  shown  in  this 
illustration.  It  is  next  advisable  to  set  up  four  to  six  4  by  6's, 
depending  on  the  diameter  of  the  silo,  at  equal  distances 
around  the  circumference.  These  should  be  securely  toe-nailed 
to  the  foundation  and  plumbed  and  held  rigidly  in  place  by 
temporary  braces.  Before  erecting  these  4  by  6's,  holes  should 
be  bored  through  them  for  the  insertion  of  f-inch  round  irons 
threaded  for  a  considerable  distance  on  either  end.  For  a  silo 
1 5  feet  in  diameter  the  hoops  might  appropriately  be  three  in 
number  and  19  feet  long.  The  hoops  should  be  passed  through 
the  4  by  ()  uprights  and  secured  by  heavy  washers  and  nuts. 
The  long  thread  on  the  hoop  permits  the  ready  adjustment  of 
the  staves  according  to  whether  the  silo  is  full  or  empty.  The 
bottom  hoop  should  be  placed  about  6  inches  from  the  base  of 
the  silo,  the  second  1  foot  above  the  first,  increasing  the  dis- 
tance 6  inches  each  time  until  a  distance  of  about  :>.\  to  4  feet 


17 


View. 


has  been  attained .  When  the  hoops  are  in  place  commence  set- 
ting up  the  2  by  6  inch  staves,  which  in  this  instance  will  be  34 
feet  long.  Place  the  first  one  next  to  a  4  by  6  upright  and 
plumb  it  and  make  secure,  driving  two  20-pcnny  nails  through 
the  staves  and  bending  them  over  each  hoop. 

Another  form  of  tightening  commonly  used  in  connection 
with  the  stave  silo  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  iron  about  6  inches 
long,  with  holes  through  either  end  just  large  enough  for  the 
hoops  to  pass  through.  Where  the  hoops  meet  they  are  passed 
through  two  consecutive  tighteners  placed  about  1  foot  apart, 
making  it  a  simple  matter  to  adjust  the  staves  at  will  by  means 
of  the  tap  and  lock  nut  which  holds  the  hoop.  Quite  recently 
oak  strips  1  inch  thick  and  2  to  4  inches  wide  have  been  substi- 
tuted for  the  iron  hoops  and  have  proven  very  satisfactory. 
They  should  be  put  on  the  same  distance  apart  as  the  iron 
hoops,  and  they  are  generally  made  of  three-piece  thickness  of 
wood  arranged  so  as  to  break  joints  and  securely  nailed  to  each 
stave.  Wherever  joints  are  broken  they  should  come  behind 
one  of  the  bands.  As  these  bands  can  often  be  sawed  out  of 
timber  available  on  the  farm  and  no  tighteners  are  required, 
they  can  be  utilized  to  advantage,  and,  so  far  as  recorded,  silos 
built  in  this  manner,  if  securely  nailed,  are  entirely  satisfactory. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  so  many  farmers  fail  in  the  construc- 
tion of  silos  is  because  they  do  not  use  enough  nails  or  large 
enough  nails.  This  matter  can  not  be  emphasized  too  strongly. 
Round  silos  are  sometimes  built  by  cutting  in  2  by  4's  between 
the  uprights,  and  running  the  lining  up  and  down.  A  number 
of  silos  constructed  after  this  method  that  have  come  under 
the  writer's  observation  are  lined  with  but  a  single  layer  of 
1  by  3  inch  flooring,  and  though  in  use  for  a  number  of  years 
they  still  are  eminently  satisfactory. 

In  the  construction  of  a  stave  silo  over  20  feet  in  height  it  42 
often  becomes  necessary  to  splice  the  staves.  This  may  be 
done  by  sawing  into  the  ends  of  the  staves  and  inserting  a  piece 
of  galvanized  iron  and  toe-nailing  the  staves  together.  Joints 
should  be  broken  when  the  staves  are  set  up.  Another  method 
of  jointing  the  staves  is  to  lap  them,  and  spike  together  and 
rivet  securely. 

This  illustration  shows  a  piece  of  iron  rod  with  the  ends  43 
reversed,  which  is  often  laid  in  the  foundation  to  prevent  the 
walls  from  spreading.  It  also  shows  some  20-penny  nails  which 
are  frequently  used  to  drive  through  the  staves  and  to  rivet 
over  the  hoops  to  keep  the  silo  rigid.  The  screws  shown  are 
lag  screws  used  to  hold  the  doors  in  place  in  a  silo  of  large 
diameter.     The  threaded  bolts  and  iron  supports  provide  one  of 


18 


tVtr. 


the  best  methods  of  tightening  and  loosening  the  staves,  as  the 

exigencies  of  the  situation  may  make  advisable. 

All  stave  silos  are  built  on  the  same  principle,  though  there 
arc  many  points  of  difference.  The  stares  may  be  eitherrough, 
dressed  on  both  side^.  beveled,  or  "tongued  and  grooved."  In 
a  silo  of  small  diameter  2  by  1's  are  more  satisfactory  than  2  by 
»■>">.  Those  who  have  had  experience  with  the  more  expensive 
tongued  and  grooved  silos  do  not  favor  their  use,  though  many 

agree  that    the  inside  of  the  staves  should  he  planed,  as  it  pro- 

vides  a  smoother  surface  and  the  silage  settles  better. 

The  inside  of  the  silo  should  be  thoroughly  coated  with  hot 
coal  tar  as  a  preservative,  and  the  outside  may  be  painted  if 
deemed  advisable.     As  a  matter  of  preservation  it  is  a  wise 

precaution  and  a  good  investment  as  a  rule.  The  construction 
of  neat  and  harmonious  buildings  on  the  farm  is  a  matter 
worthy  of  consideration. 

44  This  slide  shows  the  framework  and  general  construction  of  a 
Wisconsin  type  of  round  silo  or  a  modified  type  of  the  same. 

45  This  slide  shows  several  kinds  of  lining  for  silos.  Five- 
eighths  or  seven-eighths  inch  tongued  and  grooved  flooring  is 
often  used  to  line  square  silos  and  sometimes  round  silos  of 
large  diameter.  Two  by  six  inch  stuff  is  often  ripped  into  four 
pieces  to  make  a  double  lining  for  round  silos;  J-inch  material 
laid  crosswise  with  acid-proof  paper  between,  which  constitutes 
the  hning  for  the  majority  of  round  silos;  1-inch  flooring 
laid  at  right  angles  with  tarred  paper  between,  which  is  often 
used  in  the  square  silo  to  secure  the  walls  and  give  sufficient 
strength  to  prevent  springing.  The  hning  of  the  round  silo 
of  large  diameter  is  often  made  of  one  layer  of  matched  floor- 
ing, though  sometimes  two  layers  are  used  with  tarred  paper 
between,  the  second  layer  being  run  up  and  down. 

DOORS. 

4:6  Type  of  door  constructed  of  1-inch  flooring  laid  so  as  to  break 

joints,  appropriate  for  round  silos.  This  door  is  held  in  place 
on  the  inside  by  lag  screws.  A  sheet  of  acid-proof  paper  should 
be  placed  over  the  door  before  it  is  placed  in  position.  In  a 
24-foot  silo  there  should  be  about  three  doors,  placed  about  6 
feet  apart.  The  doors  should  be  about  2S  inches  long  in  order 
to  come  between  the  hoops.  They  should  be  cut  to  a  level  of 
about  45  inches,  sloping  to  the  inside.  The  doors  should  be 
about  24  to  30  inches  wide.  The  staves  above  and  below  the 
door  should  be  held  in  position  by  hardwood  dowel  pins,  and 
the  doors  should  then  be  fastened  together  bv  two  curved  bat- 


19 

View. 

tens  run  across  the  outside.     When  the  door  is  put  in  position 
tarred  paper  should  be  placed  over  the  edges  to  exclude  the  air. 

ROOF. 

While  a  roof  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  one  can  be  so 
cheaply  built  that  it  is  a  desirable  addition  to  the  silo.  For  a 
stave  silo  built  outside  the  barn  the  roof  may  be  constructed  by 
spiking  pieces  of  3  by  4's  or  2  by  6's  to  the  top  of  the  staves. 
Two  of  these  pieces  should  be  2  feet  long  and  two  of  them  4  feet 
long,  so  as  to  give  the  desired  slope  to  the  roof.  When  they  are 
spiked  in  position  crosspieces  should  be  fastened  to  the  top. 
A  battened  board  roof  can  then  be  quickly  and  cheaply  made. 
Many  other  forms  of  roof  can,  of  course,  be  utilized. 

This  slide  shows  the  construction  of  a  silo  in  which  metal         47 
laths  are  used  with  a  cement  plaster,  consisting  of  one  part  of 
sand  and  two  parts  of  high-grade  Portland  cement. 

Model  of  a  round  silo,  showing  framework  and  a  continuous         48 
door.     The  plan  is  to  line  tins  silo  with  metal  lath  and  plaster 
with  cement  on  both  the  inside  and  outside. 

SUMMARY. 

The  silo  is  an  institution  of  special  importance  to  southern 
farmers  for  the  following  reasons: 

(1)  In  many  sections  of  the  South  tame  grasses  do  not  grow 
well,  whereas  heavy  yields  of  corn  and  sorghum  can  be  made 
and  preserved  in  a  silo,  insuring  succulent  food  throughout  the 
year. 

(2)  The  silo  provides  a  cheap  means  of  tiding  over  drought 
periods,  which  occur  practically  every  year. 

(3)  It  permits  the  winter  feeding  and  maintenance  of  large 
numbers  of  live  stock  economically. 

(4)  It  increases  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  land  to  a  marked 
degree. 

(5)  Owing  to  the  rainy  winter  season  fodder  crops  left  in  the 
field  suffer  a  severe  loss  from  leaching.  This  can  be  avoided  by 
preserving  the  food  in  silos. 

(6)  The  mild  winters  also  make  possible  the  feeding  of  silage 
to  advantage,  for  it  rarely,  if  ever,  freezes. 

(7)  Silage  combines  with  cotton-seed  meal  to  the  best  advan- 
tage in  feeding  both  to  beef  and  dairy  cattle. 

(8)  Silage  may  be  used  in  place  of  soiling  crops  for  summer 
feeding,  thus  lessening  both  cost  and  labor. 

(9)  The  variety  of  crops  adapted  for  silage  making  in  the 
South  insures  good  yields  even  in  the  most  adverse  seasons. 


APPENDIX. 


LANTERN   SLIDES. 

No.  of 
view. 

1.  General  view  of  the  silage  and  forage  experiment  of  the  Tennessee  Experiment 

Station. 
Original. 

2.  Types  of  plows  for  use  in  preparing  land  for  silage  crops. 

Original. 
3«     Ground  in  bad  mechanical  condition. 

Original. 
4«     Plowing  under  cowpeas  for  soil  improvement. 

Original. 
5*     Root  system  of  the  corn  plant . 

Original. 
6*     Two-horse  corn  planter. 

Original. 

7.  Preserving  dust  mulch  by  use  of  weeder. 

Original. 

8.  A  two-horse  cultivator. 

Original. 
9»    Testing  the  vitality  of  seed  corn. 
Original. 

Germination  tests  with  corn. 


Percent- 
age of 

Kind  of  grains  use<  1 .  germina- 

tion in 
~2  hours. 


Golden  Beauty Sample  bought 

Early  Mastodon do 

Learning do 

Snow-white  Dent do 94 

Blount  Prolific do 98 

Cocke  Prolific Tip  grains 74 

Do Butt  grains 53 

Huffman Ideal  grains ,. j  92 

Shaw  Improved Soft  corn 86 

Huffman !  Flint  corn 95 

Cocke  Prolific ;  Deformed  grains 27 

No.  of 
view. 

10.  Comparative  vigor  of  corn  grains  indicated  by  length  of  sprouts. 

Original. 

11.  Ears  of  corn,  showing  imperfectly  formed  grains. 

Original. 

(21) 


22 

N"-  ol  Planter  U$U    fifty  d 

I.  Tliou/.-:.  Mr  wu  shcllcl  asd  i-];mt("l.                                                                                 Times. 
■  ucl.s 4 

i  kernel 30 

16 

11.  Only  the  tip  and  butt  kernels  were  u 

No  kernels 2 

1  kernel lfc 

ills 19 

3  kernels 8 

4  kernels 3 

III.  <  mly  grains  taken  from  the  middle  were  a 

No  kernels 10 

1  kernel 29 

M'ls 10 

.'{  kernels 1 

IV.  Deep  Krai  lis  only  were  i. 

No  kernels 1 

1  kernel 44 

2  kernels 4 

:*  kernels 1 

V.   <  »nly  shallow  grains  were  u-ed. 

No  kernels 6 

1  kernel 39 

2  kernels 5 

Original. 

12.  Earn  of  Bickory  King  corn. 

Original. 

13.  Cocke  Prolific  corn. 

Original. 

14.  Huffman  corn. 

Original. 

15.  Typos  of  varieties  of  corn. 

Hickory  King;  Champion  White  Pearl;  Early  Learning;  Iowa  Gold  Mine;  Iowa  Silver  Mine: 
One  Hundred  Day  Bristol;  Klondyke.    (Read  from  left  to  right.) 

Original. 

16.  Varying  sizes  of  the  stalks  of  corn,  as  affected  by  the  variety. 

Iowa  Gold  Mine;  One  Hundred  Day  Bristol;  Improved  Leamirg;  Hickory  King;  Golden 
Beauty;  Virginia  Ensilage:  Cocke  Prolific;  Huffman;  Shaw  Improved;  Mexican  June.  (Read 
from  left  to  right.) 

Original. 

17.  Cocke  Prolific  corn,  showing  from  one  to  four  ears  to  the  stalk. 

Original. 

18.  Cocke  Prolific  corn,  sin-wing  variations  in  size  and  shapes  of  ears. 

Original. 

19.  Corn  and  eowpeas  in  rows  3  feet  apart. 

Original. 

20.  Sorghum  and  eowpeas,  rows  :U  feet  apart. 

Original. 

21.  Sorghum  and  eowpeas,  rows  2  feet  apart. 

( Original. 

22.  Corn,  sorghum,  and  eowpeas,  rows  2  feet  apart. 

( hriginal. 
2.J.   ('lining  sorghum  for  silage  with  corn  harvester. 
( Original. 

24.  Culling  soy  beans  with  corn  harvester. 

( hriginal. 

25.  Low  wagon  lor  handling  silage  crops. 

Original. 

26.  A  field  of  eowpeas. 

27.  Illustrates  the  climbing  characteristic  s  of  varieties  of  eowpeas. 

Whippoorwill;  Clay;  Taylor;  Wonderful;  Black;  Lady.    (Read  from  left  to  right.) 


23 


No.  of 
view. 

28.  Velvet  beans  climbing  on  corn. 

Original. 

29.  Silage,  wheat  bran,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Produced  a  gallon  of  milk  for  7.1  cents;  a  pound  of  butter  for  12.3  cents. 
Original. 

30.  Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Proportions  for  milch  cows.     Produced  a  gallon  of  milk  for  5.7 cents;  a  pound  of  butter  for  10.4  cents. 
Original. 

31.  Silage,  alfalfa  hay,  and  wheat  bran. 

Produced  a  gallon  of  milk  for  8.2  cents;  a  pound  of  butter  for  15.3  cents. 
Original. 

32.  Herd  of  dairy  cows  maintained  chiefly  on  silage  as  a  roughness  and  a  mixed  meal 

ration. 

Show  an  average  gain  per  head  between  the  years  1900-1903  of  2,288  pounds  of  milk  and  140  pounds 
of  butter. 

Original. 

33.  Hereford  beef  cattle  before  feeding  on  silage  and  cottonseed  meal  and  corn- 

and-cob  meal. 
Original. 

34.  The  same  cattle  after  feeding  silage,  cottonseed  meal,  and  a  little  clover  hay  for 

150  days;  gain  over  2  pounds  per  day. 
Original. 

35.  Hereford  steer  fed  190  days  on  silage,  clover  hay,  and  cottonseed  meal. 

Original. 

36.  View  of  silage  cutter  and  shredder. 

Original. 

37.  Showing  shredding  knives. 

Original. 

38.  Cheap  form  of  stave  silo. 

Original. 

39.  Round  silo  constructed  with  beveled  tongued-and-grooved  staves. 

Original. 

40.  Foundation  frame  for  stave  silo. 

Original. 

41.  Illustrations  of  various  methods  of  preparing  staves  for  silo. 

Original. 

42.  Illustrations  of  method  of  splicing  staves. 

Original. 

43.  Showing  form  of  ironwork  for  stave  silo. 

Original. 

44.  Framework  of  Wisconsin  type  of  round  silo. 

Original. 

45.  Lining  for  silos. 

Original. 

46.  Form  of  door  for  silo. 

Original. 

47.  Silo  lined  with  lath  and  cemented. 

Original. 

48.  Round  silo  showing  framework  and  continuous  door  and  cemented  on  inside. 

Original. 


SILO   CONSTRUCTION. 

Relative  Value  ok  Various  Forms  of  Silos. 

In  order  to  throw  some  light  on  the  subject  of  silos  and  silage  a  list  of  questions 
was  sent  out  to  a  number  of  gentlemen  who  have  been  using  silage  in  the  feeding  of 
live  stock  for  many  years  past.  These  gentlemen  have  fed  anywhere  from  30  to  200 
cows  each  year  and  from  150  to  500  head  of  beef  cattle.  The  capacity  of  their  silos 
ranges  from  50  to  500  tons.  The  silos  reported  on  are  square  and  rectangular,  though 
a  number  are  of  the  round  type.  The  cost  of  these  silos  varied  from  $40  to  $500.  In 
the  majority  of  instances  the  silos  have  been  constructed  at  a  cost  of  less  than  $1  per 
ton  capacity.  Many  of  them  have  now  been  in  use  for  a  number  of  years  and  are 
still  reported  to  be  in  excellent  condition,  which  shows  that  the  silo,  if  properly  con- 
structed, will  last  for  a  long  time.  A  good  many  of  these  silos  are  built  in  the  barn, 
and  though  many  used  building  or  acid-proof  paper  in  the  construction,  the  majority 
seem  from  their  experience  to  regard  it  as  unnecessary.  Neither  do  floors  seem  to  be 
in  favor,  as  only  in  three  instances  are  cement  floors  reported.  The  foundations  are 
either  of  brick  or  stone,  though  several  report  building  directly  on  the  ground,  and 
while  a  silo  may  last  for  a  number  of  years  when  so  constructed,  this  does  not  seem 
to  be  a  wise  policy.  Most  of  the  silos  were  built  of  seasoned  pine,  though  oak  was 
used  in  a  few  instances.  Yellow  pine  seemed  to  be  a  favorite  material.  The  stave 
silo  is  gaining  in  favor.  The  elaborate  construction  advocated  by  many,  which  adds 
so  much  to  the  cost  of  the  silo,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  followed  in  many  cases,  and 
yet  the  silage  keeps  in  perfect  condition  and  the  silos  are  well  preserved. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  a  silo  can  be  constructed  on  the  average  southern  farm 
at  a  reasonable  cost,  capacity  considered,  and  that  some  of  the  simplified  forms  of 
construction  seem  to  be  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  ones. 
This  will  be  welcome  information  to  many  farmers  who  have  been  deterred  from 
building  a  silo  under  the  impression  that  it  required  the  outlay  of  a  large  amount 
of  money.  A  number  of  farmers  seem  to  perfer  a  single  thickness  of  pine  flooring 
run  up  and  down  to  split  fencing  with  paper  between.  Where  the  stave  silo  has 
been  used  they  do  not  believe  it  necessary,  as  a  rule,  to  bevel  and  tongue  and  groove 
the  staves. 

Computing  Dimensions  of  Silo. 

The  method  of  constructing  a  stave  silo,  briefly  stated,  is  as  follows:  First,  the 
capacity  of  the  silo  needed  must  be  determined.  Silage  weighs  from  30  to  60  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,  depending  on  the  depth  of  the  silage  and  the  condition  of  the  crop 
when  put  up.  A  fair  average  is  about  40  pounds  per  day,  or  1  cubic  foot.  If  20 
cows  are  to  be  fed  180  days,  about  75  tons  of  silage  would  be  required,  allowing  for 
the  spoiling  of  from  2  to  3  tons.  This  would  require  the  construction  of  a  silo  15  feet 
in  diameter  by  24  feet  high.  It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  calculate  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  a  square  silo,  but  it  is  a  more  difficult  problem  with  the  round  silo.  The 
capacity  of  a  round  silo  15  by  24  feet  is  determined  as  follows:  The  circumference  of 
the  silo  is  found  by  multiplying  the  diameter  by  3.1416,  which  equals  47.1  feet.  For 
every  foot  represented  two  2  by  6  inch  staves  will  be  required,  or  94  staves.  In  this 
case  the  staves  would  need  to  be  24  feet  long.  If  the  staves  of  this  length  can  not  be 
obtained  and  16-foot  staves  are  substituted,  it  would  take  141.  The  feeding  area  of 
the  silo  would  be  the  square  of  the  diameter;  that  is  15  X  15,  multiplied  by  0.7854, 
or  176.7  square  feet.    This  multiplied  by  24,  the  height  of  the  silo,  gives  the  cubic 

(25) 


26 


capacity,  or  1,210. s  cubic  feet.  A  silo  of  thii  size  would  hold  approximately  75  tons, 
provided  the  silage  weighs  35  poundi  per  cubic  foot,  sufficienl  to  food  20  cows  at  the 
rate  of  lo  pounds  per  day  for  over  L80days. 

Approximate  capacity  of  cylindrical  silos,  for  well-natured  com  tilage,  in  tons. 


I  feptfa  of  silo. 

Li  diameter  <>! 

>\\o  ii 

feet 

in 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

21 

22 

24 

25 

26 

•jo  feel 

Tem 

as 

28 
30 

a 

M 
36 
88 

40 
42 

IS 

47 
49 
51 

Tent. 

to 
1.; 
40 
49 

55 
68 
61 
64 

OS 
70 
73 

Tun*. 
.'! 
."1") 

62 
66 

70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
86 
101 

To  ll  S. 

63 
67 

7J 
70 
81 

90 
95 
100 
105 

110 
115 

Tons. 

7_> 
77 
82 

-7 

87 
103 
108 

114 
119 
125 
131 

Tons. 

'.il 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 

137 

144 
151 

158 

106 

Tons. 
105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
1 52 
100 
168 
178 
187 
195 
205 

Terns. 
115 
123 

141 
149 

168 
177 
186 
l'JO 
206 
215 

Torn 
127 

145 
154 

173 
184 
194 

Ton*. 

1!S 

158 
168 

179 
190 

212 
223 

L'17 

271 

151 
161 

172 
184 
195 

219 
231 

282 

Toms. 

163 
175 
187 

212 
224 

251 

320 

Tons. 

177 

21  feet 

22  feet 

23  AM 

_'i  [eel 

28  feel 

26  feel . . . 

27  feet 

271 

28  feet 

29  feet 

300 

30  feet 

::  1 :, 

31  feet... 



Directions  for  Constructing  Modified  Type  op  Round  Silo. 


The  modified  typo  of  round  silo  is  built  as  follows:  The  foundation  ueed  not  be 
dwelt  on,  us  that  described  for  the  round  silo  will  be  satisfactory  in  every  n  - 
Two  by  fours  are  commonly  used  for  the  framework  of  the  modified  round  silo.  They 
are  generally  set  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  15  inches  from  center  to  center,  depending 
on  the  size  of  the  silo.  As  it  is  often  desirable  to  build  a  silo  more  than  30  feet  high 
and  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  obtain  2  by  4*8  of  thai  Length,  the  scantlings  are  lapped 
2  or  3  feet  and  spiked  securely  together,  or  the  ends  an  :'  lo  a  depth  of  '1  or  1 

inches  and  a  heavy  piece  of  galvanized  iron  inserted  and  the  two  ends  squared  and 
securely  toe-nailed  together.  When  this  practice  becomes  necessary  it  is  generally 
advisable  to  use  20  to  10  foot  pieces  of  scantling,  reversing  the  staves  as  set  up  so  as  to 
break  joints.     When  ii  become  ry  in  the  construction  of  a  stave  silo  by  reason 

of  the  height  to  use  two  pieces  of  staves  they  are  spliced  o.gether  by  the  last  method 
Indicated.  The  plate  of  the  round  silo  is  constructed  like  the  foundation  described 
under  the  st ave  silo.  The  lining  of  the  round  silo  is  made  of  2  by  (J  inch  fencing 
into  four  pieces.  One-half  of  this  should  be  dressed  on  one  side  and  one-half  on  both 
sides,  I'ommencing  on  the  inside  at  the  bottom  the  '  by  6  inch  boards  are  securely 
nailed  to  each  upright  with  two  8-ponny  nails.  A  Layer  of  building  paper  is  then  put 
on  and  another  layer  of  the  $  by  6  inch  material,  taking  care  to  break  joints.  The  inside 
of  the  silo  should  be  thoroughly  painted  with  hot  coal  tar  and  the  foundation  securely 
embedded  in  cement,  so  as  to  exclude  the  air.  A  floor  may  be<  onstructed,  ifd<  airable, 
and  a  round,  saddle,  or  sloping  roof  utilized,  as  deemed  advisable.  When  the  silo  is 
built  in  tin-  barn  a  roof  is  unnecessary.  !i  is  advisable  to  build  a  dormer  window  in  the 
roof  when-  the  round  construction  is  followed,  which  permits  of  filling  right  to  the  top. 
In  spite  ,»f  all  that  can  be  done  the  silage  will  Bettle  to  a  considerable  depth  after  it 
Btands.  <>u  the  side  where  the  doors  are  io  be  placed  '.he  studding  should  be  set 
double  and  at  the  rfghl  distance  to  give  the  desired  width.  Bay  2\  feet.  The  studs 
should  I..-  set  between  the  two  door  spaces  as  if  no  doors  were  to  be  made,  and  the  doors 
cut  <>ut  later.  When  'he  second  stud  i--  placed  in  position  it  is  set  out  1  inch,  so  as  to 
form  a  jamb  for  thedoor,  which  is  constructed  of  two  layers  of  matched  flooring  held  in 
position  with  Lag  BCrews  A  chute  for  convenience  in  handling  the  feed  is  often  con- 
structed over  the  doorways  of  the  round  silo,  and  the  convenience  afforded,  cost  con- 
sidered, will  justify  its  construction.    The  silo  just  described  lias  no  covering  on  the 


27 

outside  of  the  studding,  and  this  is  certainly  unnecessary  in  the  South.  The  outside 
may  be  appropriately  painted  for  its  protection  or  it  may  be  boarded  up,  to  improve 
the  general  appearance.  When  this  is  done  openings  should  be  left  at  the  top  and  bot- 
tom on  the  outside  to  permit  of  the  free  circulation  of  the  air  between  the  silo  walls. 
Wire  nettings  should  be  placed  over  these  openings  to  keep  out  rats  and  mice. 

The  type  of  silo  just  described  is  probably  the  most  efficient,  so  far  as  the  preserva- 
tion of  silage  is  concerned,  that  can  be  utilized  at  a  moderate  cost,  though  many  who 
have  had  experience  with  it  do  not  regard  it  with  greater  favor  than  the  cheaper 
stave  silo  and  are  opposed  to  the  use  of  building  paper,  which  adds  considerably  to 
the  cost. 

Bill  of  material  for  stave  silo,  14  feet  diameter,  30  feet  high  above  foundation;  5  doors. 
Estimated  capacity,  100  tons. 


Foundation. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Rock. 

Walls 

Bbls. 
8.2 
3.0 
1.2 

Cu.  yds. 

3.0 

1.1 

.5 

Cu.  yds. 
5.1 

Floor 

1.9 

Finish , 

Total 

12.4 

4.6 

7.0 

Walls: 

135  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  12  feet  long,  staves. 

135  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  18  feet  long,  staves. 

1  piece,  2  by  6  inches,  18  feet  long  door,  cleats. 
Roof: 

9  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  12  feet  long,  rafters  and  curb. 
8  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  10  feet  long,  rafters  and  curb. 
300  feet  B.  M.,  1  by  10  inch  roof  boards. 

3,000  shingles,  or  3  squares  1  by  10,  or  4  rolls  3-ply  roofing  paper. 
Hardware : 

12  rods  |  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long. 

4  rods  ^  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long,  ends  upset. 

8  rods  §  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long. 

4  rods  f  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long,  ends  upset. 

8  rods  |  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long. 

8  rods  |  inch  diameter,  12  feet  3  inches  long,  ends  upset. 

All  rods  (sections)  to  be  curved  to  fit  circle  14  feet  in  diameter. 

44  malleable  iron  lugs. 

88  nuts,  two  on  each  rod. 

1  iron  strap  ^  inch  by  1J  inches,  3  feet  long,  punched  for  10  No.  12  wood  screws. 

1  pair  8-inch  galvanized  iron  T  hinges  and  screws. 

4  anchor  rods,  §  inch  by  18  inches. 

4  bolts,  f  inch  by  4  feet,  with  nuts  and  washers. 

100  bolts,  ^  inch  diameter,  4  inches  long,  with  nuts  and  washers  (doors). 

75  pounds  fortypenny  wire  spikes. 

12  pounds  tenpenny  nails. 

10  pounds  threepenny  shingle  nails,  if  shingles  are  used. 
10  wood  screws,  No.  12,  H  inches  long. 

135  pieces  No.  22  galvanized  iron,  2  by  4  inches  (spli<  • 
Note. — Staves  must  be  straight,  straight  grained,  clear,  well  seasoned,  lumber 
without  sap,  large  or  loose  knots,  waney  edges  or  shakes,  and  must  be  dressed  on  one 
side  and  one  edge. 


28 
BUI  for  mot  •  nlo  on  metal  lath,  ttjatk  Ham*  tor,  90/eeL  high  abon  foundation 

on  3-foot  nail.     Estimatal  capacity,  7.j  tons. 

Portland  cement,  30  barn-is. 

Lime,  5  barrels. 

Band,  1 1  <-ul»i<-  yard-. 

Broken  stone,  -ij  cubic  yards  for  concn 

Cow  hair,  1  bushel. 

teel,  (ii  linear  feci.  |  inch  by  2  inehes. 
s«  ft  Bteel,  120  linear  feet,  \  inch  round. 

Soft  Bteel,  77>0  linear  feet,  |  inch  round. 
BB  i' i  gauge  herringbone  ingol  ir«»n  lath,  L34  square  yards. 
N<>.  7  triangle  mesh  reenforcement,  1,200  square  feci. 
No.  B  galvanized  wire,  50  pounds. 

Hound  iron  4  feet  long  by  $  inch  wide,  19  pieces. 
Bolts,  10  inches  by  $  inch  (common  iron),  24. 
Bolts,  8  inches  by  £  inch  (common  iron),  24. 
Washers  for  $-inch  bolts,  1  pound . 
Washers  for  f-inch  bolts,  \  pound. 
Tenpenny  wire  nails,  20  pounds. 
Twentypenny  wire  nails,  5  pounds. 
Eightpenny  wire  nails,  3  pounds. 
7-pound  rivets,  \  package. 
Valley  tin  for  hatchway,  10  feet . 
Lumber  for  staging  and  roofing: 

300  linear  feet,  1  by  3  inches. 

200  linear  feet,  1  by  4  inches. 

20  pieces,  1  inch  by  12  feet. 

30  pieces,  1  by  8  inches  by  16  feet. 

20  pieces,  1  by  6  inches  by  16  feet. 

50  pieces,  2  by  4  inches  by  16  feet. 
Material  for  roof: 

Patent  flexible  roofing  with  nails  for  same,  3  squares. 

1  12-inch  galvanized  iron  ventilator. 
Miscellaneous: 

Gas  (coal  tar),  6  gallons. 
Gasoline,  4  gallons. 

2  50-cent  roofing  brushes. 

Galvanized  iron  roofing,  2  by  8  feet  for  chute,  9  pieces. 

Tar  paper,  1  roll. 

1  4-inch  metal  or  tile  drain  trap; feet  4  inch  sewer  tile. 

Estimate  of  bill  of  material  for  monolithic  concrete  silo.     Size,  1^  feet  by  84  feet,  6-inch 

tcalls.     Capacity,  120  tons. 

Foundation:  1  by  2  feet  deep,  94.24  cubic  feet.     Circumference,  47.12  feet. 

Body  of  silo:  6-inch  wall,  34  feet  high,  773.5  cubic  feet.     Circumference  inside,  45.55 

feet. 
Total,  867.7  cubic  feet,  or  32.1  cubic  yards. 
57.5  barrels  cement. 
28.5  cubic  yards  rock. 
17.3  cubic  yards  sand. 

12  pieces  36-inch  square  mesh  wire  fencing  45.5  feet  long. 
5  pieces  angle  iron  2  feet  long  for  doorsills. 
10  pieces  scrap  iron  4.5  feet  long  for  door  sides. 


29 


Inside  form  material : 

Circumference,  43.98  feet. 

6  pieces  1  by  6  inches  by  14  feet  dressed  oak. 

1  piece  2  by  6  inches  by  12  feet  dressed  oak  for  door  frame. 

6  pieces  sheet  iron  No.  20  or  No.  22,  36  inches  wide  by  8  feet  long. 
Outside  form  material: 

Circumference,  47.12  feet. 

7  pieces  sheet  iron,  No.  20  or  No.  22,  3  by  8  feet. 

24  pieces  tire  steel,  10  inches  long,  ends  upset  and  bored  for  riveting  to  iron. 

12  machine  bolts,  $  inch  by  5  inches,  long  threads. 

\  package  tinner's  rivets,  If -pound  size. 

100  tinner's  rivets,  7-pound  size. 
Doors:  72  feet  B.  M.,  tongued-and-grooved  flooring. 
Roof: 

Plates,  6  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  16  feet. 

Rafters,  4  pieces  2  by  6  inches,  18  feet. 

Sheathing,  255  square  feet. 

Roofing,  3  squares. 
Nails: 

20  pounds  8-penny  common  wire. 

30  pounds  10-penny  scaffolding. 

5  pounds  20-penny. 
Note. — It  is  expected  that  extra  care  will  be  taken  to  have  the  walls  smooth,  so 
that  no  plaster  coat  will  be  needed.  If  possible  silo  should  be  built  so  that  the  walls 
can  season  for  a  month  before  filling.  Give  the  inside  wall  a  coat  of  coal  tar  thinned 
with  gasoline  to  consistency  of  paint,  same  as  wood  silos  require.  Use  good  judgment 
in  constructing  foundation.  Use  poles  and  1  by  4  inch  stuff,  or  material  on  hand 
for  scaffolding. 

Estimate  of  materials  for  stave  silo,  12  feet  in  diameter,  24  feet  deep,  capacity  49  tons.    By 

F.  H.  King. 

If  yards  of  rock  or  gravel. 

4  barrels  of  sand. 

1  barrel  of  cement. 

2,260  feet  tongued-and-grooved  staves. 

72  feet,  3  by  6  inches  by  24  feet,  door  frames. 

358  feet  f -inch  round  iron  for  hoops  and  bolts,  weight  465  pounds. 

9  lugs. 

54  nuts. 

Preservative  ($1.50). 

Estimate  of  cost  of  round  stave  silo.     By  J.  A.  Reagan. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Reagan,  of  Sweetwater,  who  erected  several  silos,  estimates  the  cost  of 
building  a  round  stave  silo,  20  by  30  feet,  with  a  capacity  of  200  tons,  about  as  follows: 

Foundation $10 

2,200  feet  of  1  by  3  inch  flooring 36 

Oak  hoops,  1,400  feet,  at  $8 12 

Siding,  200  feet,  at  $8 16 

Nails 15 

Carpenter  work 40 

Material  and  labor  in  constructing  roof 20 

Total 149 


30 
Eitimati  of  cost  of  50-ton  silo.    Ji,/  ./.  .V.  Meroney. 

Mr.  J.  X.  M<  r  ;.\ .  .,i  I  >;irk.<  Mill.-,  wh<>  has  used  a  silo  with  success  for  twelve  years, 
estimate!  the  coot  <>f  building  one  "f  his  silos,  which  has  an  H-f* -<>t  earth  cistern  with 
li-f.M,t  staves  above  and  a  capacity  of  about  60  tons,  at  $50.  Mr.  Meroney 'a  silo 
i>-  12  feel  iii  diameter,  and  lie  used  1 L0  2  by  l  inch  by  I  (-foot  staves.  The  cost  was 
as  foil 

Earth  <  istern,  l>rirk  border  foundal  Ion. 

1  barrel  of  cement $7 

l.ooo  feet  of  2  by  l  inch  by  l  Hoot  staves 18 

8  g-inrh  round  iron  hoops  and  lugs 15 

Plain  rough  board  roof 10 

Total 50 

Ett&maU  of  materials  for  Wisconsin  improral  silo.     Size,  .10  fat  deep,  14  feet  diameter; 

capacity,  90  tons. 

Brick,  3,&75  for  foundation,  1  foot  thick,  3  feet  deep. 
Studs,  50  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  16  feet  long. 
Studs,  50  pied  B,  2  by  4  inches,  14  feet  long. 
Flooring  for  doors,  32  feet,  4  matched. 

Sheathing,  3,000  feet,  J-inch, resawed  from  2  by  G  inch  16-foot  plank, sawed  three 
times,  dressed  one  side  to  uniform  thickness,  for  inside  lining  of  two  layers. 
Lining,  1,500  feet  of  same  for  outside. 
Tarred  building  paper,  200  yards,  water  and  acid  proof. 
Nails,  200  pounds,  8-penny;  200  pounds,  10-penny. 
Spikes,  20  pounds. 

Rafters,  22,  2  by  4  inches,  10  feet  long,  for  usual  ridge  roof. 
Sheathing  for  roof,  350  feet  of  16-foot  boards. 
Shingles,  3,000. 
Shingle  nails,  12  pounds. 
Donner  window  for  filling  through. 
Paint,  7  gallons,  providing  for  two  coats. 
Cement,  2  barrels,  for  cementing  bottom. 

Estimate  of  materials  for  a  modified  Wisconsin  silo,  same  capacity  as  preceding. 

Brick,  350,  for  foundation,  8  inches  wide,  5  inches  thick. 

Studs,  50  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  16  feet  long. 

Studs,  50  pieces,  2  by  4  inches,  14  feet  long. 

Sheeting,  3.000  feet,  \  inch,  resawed  from  2  by  (i  inch  16-foot  plank,  sawed  three 
times,  dressed  in  uniform  thickness,  for  inside  lining  of  two  layers. 

Tarred  building  paper,  200  yards,  water  and  acid  proof. 

Xails,  150  pounds  8-penny. 

Spikes,  12  pounds. 

No  outer  siding,  roof,  or  floor  is  figured  on  or  provided  for  in  this  construction. 

To  cover  the  outside  of  the  silo  with  weatherboard ing  would  cost  about  $30  and  to 
paint  it  $6  additional.  A  roof  would  add  about  $10  to  the  cost,  making  a  total  for 
the  complete  silo  of  $179.10.  A  rectangular  silo  of  the  same  capacity  would  cost 
about  twice  as  much.  These  estimates  of  the  cost  of  construction  of  the  different 
sizes  and  types  of  silos  are  at  best  only  approximate.  The  cost  of  constructing  a  silo 
will  be  influenced  by  many  local  conditions,  as  the  juice  of  labor  and  lumber.  In 
some  sections  of  the  country  lumber  will  cost  one-third  more  than  in  other  places. 
When  the  farmer  l:<  ts  ready  to  build  a  silo  and  determines  on  the  type,  it  will  not 


31 

be  a  difficult  matter  to  get  out  a  bill  of  the  material  needed,  and  then  by  consulting 
his  local  dealers,  or,  for  that  matter,  those  at  a  distance  as  well,  he  can  judge  about 
what  he  should  pay  for  the  material  needed,  and  it  will  not  be  a  difficult  matter  to 
find  a  carpenter  who  with  a  little  guidance  can  construct  a  silo  with  the  aid  of  the 
labor  that  should  be  available  on  every  farm. 

Estimate  of  cost  of  80-ton  stare  silo.     By  S.  P.  White. 

Mr.  S.  P.  White,  of  Pulaski,  has  constructed  a  silo  on  principles  similar  to  those 
outlined  in  this  paper.  He  estimates  the  cost  of  such  a  silo,  14  by  24  feet,  with  a 
capacity  of  80  tons,  as  follows: 

Foundation  (stone  quarried  on  farm) $5.  00 

Seven  |-inch  iron  hoops 14.  00 

2,300  feet  2  by  4  inch  staves 35.  00 

175  feet  2  by  12  inch  planks  for  plate 2.  62 

150  feet  1  by  12  inch  planks  for  feeding-chute  and  doors 2.  25 

Nails 2.00 

Labor 15.  00 

Total 75.  87 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Indian  Corn  Culture,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.    J.  N.  Sanders  Pub.  Co. 

2.  The  Book  of  Corn,  by  Herbert  Myrick  et  al.     Orange  Judd  Co. 

3.  Soiling,  Ensilage,  and  Stable  Construction,  by  F.  S.  Peer.     M.  F.  Mansfield,  N.  Y. 

4.  A  Book  on  Silage,  by  F.  W.  Woll.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

5.  Silage.     Arkansas  Sta.  Rpt.  1889. 

6.  An  Underground  Silo.     Colorado  Sta.  Bui.  30. 

7.  Silage  from  Cowpeas.     Delaware  Sta.  Rpt.  1893. 

8.  Preparation  and  Use  of  Silage.     Florida  Sta.  Bui.  16. 

9.  Preparation  and  Use  of  Silage.     Illinois  Sta.  Bui.  2. 

10.  The  Silo  and  Silage  in  Indiana.     Indiana  Sta.  Bui.  40. 

11.  Silos  and  Silage.     Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  6. 

12.  Steaming,  Storage  in  Field  Pits,  etc.     Kansas  Sta.  Rpt.  1889. 

13.  Preparation  and  Use  of  Silage.     Kansas  Sta.  Bui.  48. 

14.  Silos  and  Silage.     Maryland  Sta.  Rpt.  1889-91. 

15.  Silos  and  Silage.     Michigan  Sta.  Bui.  47. 

16.  Building  Silos.     Michigan  Sta.  Sp.  Bui.  6. 

17.  Preparation  and  Use  of  Silage.     Mississippi  Sta.  Bui.  8. 

18.  Silos  and  Ensilage.     Nebraska  Sta.  Bui.  17. 

19.  Silage  in  Dairy  Farming.     New  Hampshire  Sta.  Bui.  14. 

20.  Changes  in  Silos.     New  York  State  Sta.  Rpt.  1892. 

21.  Silage  and  Silos.     New  York  State  Sta.  Bui.  102. 

22.  The  Construction  of  the  Stave  Silo.     New  York  Cornell  Bui.  167. 

23.  Silos  and  Silage.     North  Carolina  Sta.  Bui.  80. 

24.  Silos  and  Silage.     Ohio  Bui.,  V.  II,  No.  3. 

25.  Silos  and  Silage.     Oregon  Sta.  Bui.  9. 

26.  Losses  in  Silage.     Oregon  Sta.  Bui.  67. 

27.  Preparation.     Oregon  Sta.  Bui.  72. 

28.  Silos  and  Silo  Building.     Pennsylvania  Board  of  Agr.  Rpt.  1894. 

29.  Silos  and  Silage.     South  Carolina  Sta.  Bui.  51. 

30.  Silos  and  Silage.     South  Dakota  Sta.  Bui.  51. 

31.  Loss  in  Preparation.     Vermont  Sta.  Rpt.  1889. 

32.  Loss  in  Ensiling.     Vermont  Sta.  Rpt.  1894. 


32 

i  ad  Silage.     \  iiginia  Sta.  Bui 
heap  Biloe  in  \  ixginia.     Virginia  Bta.  Bui.  to. 
Silos  and  Silage.    Washington  Bta.  Bui.  14. 
.;»>.  silo  Building  and  Pilling.     Wisconsin  Bta.  Bui.  19. 
.;:.  Tin-  <  lonstruction  of  Silos.     Wisconsin  Bta.  Bui.  28. 
38.  The  Construction  of  Biloa  and  the  Making  and  Handling  of  Silage.     Wiso 

Sta.  Bui 
39    Lateral  Pressure  of  Silage.     \\  risconsin  Bta.  Etpt.  1894. 

io.  Losses  iii  Silage;  (  hanu'cs  in  I-Vrnn-ntation.     Wisconsin  Bta.  Rpt.  L900and  1901. 
41,  Silos  and  Silage.     I '.  8.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  32 

12.  Ensilage.    Ontario  Sta.  Bui.  32. 

13.  Fodder  Corn  and  the  silo.    Ontario  Bta.  Bui.  42. 

1 1.  The  Silo  and  <  Sam  Ensilage.    <  tatario  Bureau  of  Industries  Bui. 

45.  Experiments  with  Corn,  Porage  Crops,  and  Spring  Cereals.    Tenn<  Bui., 

V.  14,  No.  1. 
4»i.  Crops  for  the  Silo.    Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.,  V.  17,  So.  1. 

47.  Increasing  the  Yield  of  Com.    Tennessee  Sta.  Bui.,  V.  17,  No.  2. 

48.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Expt.  Station  Record  ,  Vols.  1  to  15,  inclusive. 


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